4lomza.pl/

ja wam jeszcze pokaze!!
biegam po calym ogrodku i nic!!

dlaczego ty

According to a recent scientific study, human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations.[1] It is also used to categorize a number of diverse populations together based on historical and prehistorical ancestral relationships. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent Sub Saharan African descent (see African diaspora). Among the members of this group, brown skin is most often accompanied by the expression of natural afro-hair texture. Other definitions of the term "black people" extend to any of the populations characterized by dark skin, a definition that also includes certain populations in Oceania and Southeast Asia.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Physiological traits
o 1.1 Dark skin
o 1.2 Hair
* 2 Sub-Saharan Africa
* 3 Cultural ideas of a black race
o 3.1 South Africa
o 3.2 In the Middle East
+ 3.2.1 Arab world
+ 3.2.2 Turkey
+ 3.2.3 Israel
o 3.3 In the Americas
+ 3.3.1 United States
# 3.3.1.1 One drop rule
# 3.3.1.2 Blackness
+ 3.3.2 Brazil
# 3.3.2.1 Statistics
# 3.3.2.2 Race relations in Brazil
o 3.4 In Asia and Australasia
+ 3.4.1 China
+ 3.4.2 India and Southeast Asia
+ 3.4.3 Melanesia
o 3.5 In Europe
+ 3.5.1 United Kingdom
+ 3.5.2 France
+ 3.5.3 Italy
+ 3.5.4 Spain
+ 3.5.5 Balkans
+ 3.5.6 Eastern Europe
+ 3.5.7 Russia
* 4 Debates on race
o 4.1 Hamitic race
o 4.2 In Afrocentrism
* 5 See also
* 6 Footnotes

Physiological traits
Dark skin
Further information: Human skin color
Map of indigenous skin color distribution in the world based on Von Luschan's chromatic scale.
Map showing Sub-Saharan Africa colored green and North Africa colored gray.

The evolution of dark skin is linked intrinsically to the loss of body hair in humans. By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had the same receptor protein of today's Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein.[4] This is significantly earlier than the speciation of Homo sapiens from Homo erectus some 250,000 years ago.

Skin cancer as a result of ultraviolet light radiation causing mutations in the skin is less common among people with dark skin than it is among those with light skin.[5][6] Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, folate, from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be healthier and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. White Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation.[7] Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of vitamin D3. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low vitamin D3 levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. White people of Europe, who have low levels of melanin, naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when untanned. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The loss of melanin in white people is now thought to have been caused by a mutation in just one letter out of 3.1 billion letters of DNA.[8]
Hair
Main article: Natural afro-hair

The texture of hair in people of Sub-Saharan African ancestry is noticeably different from that of Eurasian populations, as was already noted by Herodotus, who described the peoples of Libya (the "western Ethiopians") as wooly-haired.

Such "afro-hair" texture is denser than its straight counterparts. Due to this, it is often referred to as 'thick', 'bushy', or 'woolly'. For several reasons, possibly including its relatively flat cross section (among other factors[9]), this hair type conveys a dry or matte appearance.[10][11] It is also very coarse,[10] and its unique shape renders it very prone to breakage when combed or brushed.[11]

The specific characteristics of the natural afro-hair form are unique among all mammals.[clarification needed][dubious – discuss][12] The texture likely predates the evolution of dark skin. It evolved when, as pre-human Australopithecines lost most of their fur to enable perspiration, the need to protect the newly exposed pale skin underneath this body hair was crucial (see[13] in light of Rogers et al., 2004 and Harding et al., 2000). The trait ceased to be essential to survival at the equator upon the evolution of hairless dark skin. Yet it has continued to be expressed vestigially among most Melanesians, Andaman Islanders, and sub-Saharan Africans.
Sub-Saharan Africa
Further information: Demographics of Africa
A black woman and her albinistic son from Tanzania

Sub-Saharan Africa is a common if imprecise term that encompasses African countries located south of the Sahara Desert. It is commonly used to differentiate the region culturally, ecologically, politically and, more controversially, racially, from North Africa, which has historically been part of the Mediterranean sphere. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark-skinned, it is alternatively called "Black Africa".[14] Some criticize the use of the term, because, having become in many quarters synonymous with Black Africa, it can leave the mistaken impression that there are not indigenous Black populations in North Africa. Furthermore, the Sahara cuts across countries such as Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan, leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in sub-Saharan Africa.

Owen 'Alik Shahadah argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones:

Sub-Saharan Africa is a racist byword for "primitive", a place which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like “no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.” “Ancient Egypt was not a Sub-Saharan African civilization.” Sub-Sahara serves as an exclusion, which moves, jumps and slides around to suit negative generalization of Africa.[15]

However, some Black Africans prefer to be culturally distinguished from those who live in the north of the continent.[16]
Cultural ideas of a black race
South Africa
A Khoisan man, an ethnic group in South Africa.

In South Africa during the apartheid era, the population was classified into four groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and Coloured. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European descent (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa.

The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered Colored or Black, the "pencil test" was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.[17]

During the apartheid era, those classed as 'Coloured' were oppressed and discriminated against. However, they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as 'Black'. In the post-apartheid era the government's policies of affirmative action have favored 'Blacks' over 'Coloureds'. Some South Africans categorized as 'Black' openly state that 'Coloureds' did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by 'Coloured' South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is:

Not white enough under apartheid and not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)

Other than by appearance, 'Coloureds' can be distinguished from 'Blacks' by language. Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.[18]

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa has ruled that Chinese South Africans are to be reclassified as Black people.[19]
In the Middle East
Arab world
See also: Afro-Arab

Black African and Near Eastern peoples have interacted since prehistoric times.[20][21] Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert in the Arab slave trade from 650 to 1900 CE.[22][23] The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.[24][25]

The Afro-Asiatic languages, which include Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew, are believed by some scholars to have originated in Ethiopia.[26] This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.

In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between black people and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of extensive Arabic vocabulary into Swahili, which became a useful lingua franca for merchants. Some of this linguistic exchange occurred as part of the slave trade; the history of Islam and slavery shows that the major juristic schools traditionally accepted the institution of slavery.[27] As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see East Africa). Timbuktu was a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the Arab World. As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the Middle East have black ancestry and many black people on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry.[28]

According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's Universidade do Estado da Bahia, Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble Latin America. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.[29]

Moore also claims that a film about Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an African-American had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie Sadat, starring Louis Gossett, Jr., was not canceled. The Egyptian government refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett.[30] The objections, however, did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier.

Sadat's mother was a black Sudanese woman and his father was a lighter-skinned Egyptian. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".[31]

Fathia Nkrumah was another Egyptian with ties to Black Africa. She was the late wife of Ghanaian revolutionary Kwame Nkrumah, whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the African Union.[32]

In general, Arabs had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the Qur'an was interpreted to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage,[33][34] many mixed race children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance.[35] Because of patrilineality, the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, (whose mother was a Fulani concubine), who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief.[36] The term "abd," (Arabic: عبد‎,) "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory.[37]
Ethiopian Israeli soldier in Nablus, in 2006
Turkey
See also: Afro-Turks

Beginning several centuries ago, a number of sub-Saharan Africans were brought by slave traders during the Ottoman Empire to plantations between Antalya and Istanbul in modern-day Turkey.[38] Some of their descendants remain, mixed with the rest of the population in these areas, and many migrated to larger cities. Some came from the island of Crete following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.[39]
Israel

There are some 120,000 Ethiopian Jews living in Israel.[40] Over 16,000 African asylum seekers have entered Israel in recent years.[41] In addition, Israel is home to over 5,000 members of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem movement who reside mainly in a distinct neighborhood the Negev town of Dimona. Unknown numbers of black converts to Judaism reside in Israel most of then converts from the UK, Canada, and the United States. Thousands of mixed-race individuals with non-black Jewish relatives also live in Israel. About 150,000 blacks live in Israel, this amounts to just over 2% of the nation's population.
In the Americas
See also: Afro Americans in the Americas

Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million,[42] most of whom live in the United States, the Caribbean and Latin America, including Brazil. Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.
United States
Main article: African American
See also: African immigration to the United States

In the first 200 years that black people had been in the United States, they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be Ashanti, Igbo, Bakongo or Wolof. But when Africans were brought to the Americas they were forced to give up their ethnic affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different ethnic groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the West African coastline stretching from Senegal to Angola and in some cases from the south east coast such as Mozambique. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various ethnic groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the Black church and Black English. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one ethnic group.[15]

In March 1807, Britain, which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared the trans-atlantic slave trade illegal, as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which Congress had the power to do so under Article I, Section 9 of the United States Constitution.)

By that time, the majority of black people were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating black people back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "Negro" or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as African Methodist Episcopal Church. "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.[43]

The term black was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma. In his 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech,[44] Martin Luther King, Jr. uses the terms Negro 15 times and black 4 times. Each time he uses black it is in parallel construction with white (e.g., black men and white men).[45] With the successes of the civil rights movement a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of Negro, black was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "Black Power" by Kwame Toure (Stokely Carmichael) and the release of James Brown's song "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud".

In 1988 Jesse Jackson urged Americans to use the term African American because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some such as Maulana Karenga and Owen Alik Shahadah argue African-American is more appropriate because it accurately articulates geography and historical origin.[15] Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.[46][not in citation given] Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.[47] The appropriateness of the term "African American" is further confused, however, by increases in African immigrants from Africa, the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent African immigrants may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.[48]

The U.S. census race definitions says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian. However, the Census Bureau notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.[49]

A considerable portion of the U.S. population identified as black actually have some Native American or European American ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17–18% European.[50]
One drop rule

Historically, the United States used a colloquial term, the one-drop rule, to designate a black person as any person with any known African ancestry.[51] Legally the definition varied from state to state. Thomas Jefferson had slaves who were legally white (less than 25% Black) and legally slaves (mother was a slave). Outside of the US, some other countries have adopted the practice, but the definition of who is black and the extent to which the one drop "rule" applies varies from country to country.

The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves[52] and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race pure.[53] One of the results of the one drop rule was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity.[51] Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial, and advocated equality for all.

President Barack Obama self-identifies as black and African American interchangeably.[54] According to a Williams Identity Survey conducted by Zogby International interactive poll conducted November 1–2, 2006, among those who voted, 55 percent of white voters and 61 percent of Hispanics voters classified him as biracial instead of black after being told that his mother is white, and 66 percent of Black voters classified Obama as black.[55] Another poll conducted by the same group returned results that 42 percent of African-Americans voters described Tiger Woods as black, as did 7% of white voters.[56]
Blackness
Barack Obama, the first Black President of the United States, was, throughout his campaign, criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".[57][58][59]

The concept of blackness in the United States has been described[by whom?] as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream African American culture and values. To a certain extent, this concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior.

Blackness can be contrasted with "acting white" where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans, with regard to fashion, dialect, taste in music,[60] and possibly, from the perspective of a significant number of Black youth, academic achievement.[61]

The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. Toni Morrison once described Bill Clinton as the first black president,[62] because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a jazz musician. Christopher Hitchens was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same"[63] Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit black people like no other president before[64] for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the Rwanda genocide[65] and his welfare reform which led to the worst child poverty since the 1960s[66] along with the fact that the number of black people in jail increased during his administration.[67]

The question of blackness also arose in Democrat Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign. Commentators[57] such as Time magazine[59] have questioned whether Obama, who was elected the first black President of the United States, is black enough, as his mother was white American, and his father was a black Kenyan immigrant. Obama refers to himself interchangeably as black and African American.[54]
Brazil
Main article: Race in Brazil
Afro-Brazilian women during a Candomblé ceremony.

The topic of race in Brazil is a complex and diverse one.[citation needed] A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.[68]

There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.[69][70]
Statistics
See also: Race and genetics#Admixture in Latin America
Demographics of Brazil Year White Pardo Black
1835 24.4% 18.2% 51.4%
2000 53.7% 38.5% 6.2%

From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil.[69] An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-miscegenation laws in Brazil and as a result intermarriage has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as Pardo (brown)- a broad multiracial category.[71]

A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage.[68] A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry.[72]
Race relations in Brazil

Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil. However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line, with blacks and other non-whites accounting for 70 percent of the poor.[73]

In the US, black people earn 75% of what white people earn. In Brazil, non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This is because the gap in income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared to the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.[74] Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement.

Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of Salvador, Bahia for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that US cities that have a black majority, such as Detroit and New Orleans, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.[75]

Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the telenovelas or soaps are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble Scandinavians or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of Southern European descent.[76][77][78]

These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.[79]
In Asia and Australasia
China

There was a colony of Arab merchants in Canton that received slaves from East Africa. Serge Bilé cites a 12th century text which tells us that most well-to-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they regarded as savages and demons because of their physical appearance.[80] Each Portuguese family in Macau had an average of five or six black male slaves (without counting those slaves' wives and children). Many slaves fled from their masters in Macau and came into China, wrote Matteo Ricci, indenturing themselves there to local Chinese military commanders.[81] Zheng Zhilong and his son Koxinga had the "black guard" most of whom were black Africans who were former Portuguese slaves.[82]

Based on a report in the Guangzhou Daily, there might be as many as 100,000 Africans in Guangzhou, China, a number that the newspaper reports has been increasing at an annual rate of 30 to 40% since 2003.[83][84]
An 1876 Great Andamanese couple of the Andaman Islands
A young Bonda girl on her way to the market in India.
India and Southeast Asia

See also Indo-African In India exists the Great Andamanese people who are considered tribals as their ancestors are among the first groups to inhabit Indian region. The Great Andamanese are 1 of 5 black ethnic groups native to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The other four are the Jangil, Jarawa, Onge and Sentinelese. In South there are also several communities of Black African descent, such as the Sheedis/Siddis, or specifically the Siddis of Karnataka, who descend from East African slaves sold as far away as China. Other ethnic groups in India with dark skin and/or broad facial feature which could arguable be considered as Black are the Bonda, Gondi, Bhil, Dongria Kondha.[85] There are also the Vedda people of Sri Lanka.
Melanesia
An ethnic Ati woman of the Philippines.
An Indigenous Fijian man
A young Melanesian Vanuatu Pacific Islander boy.[86]

There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of Asia, Australia and Oceania who sometimes are referred to as black people. They include the Indigenous Australians, the Melanesians (now divided into Austronesian-speaking populations and Papuans, and including the great genetic diversity of New Guinea), the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, the Ati of Panay.[87] indigenous first nation Fijians and various indigenous peoples sometimes collectively known as Negritos.

By their external physical appearance (phenotype) such people resemble Black Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. There have been suggestions of a Black African origin. However, in the case of the Andamanese people, a study conducted by the NCBI indicated that the Andamanese people possessed closer affinities with the Southeast Asian population than with the Black African population.[88]
In Europe
Main article: Afro-European
"Break at La Vilette" Paris, 1985, oil on canvas by Philippe Derome
United Kingdom
Main article: Black British
See also: Black British population, British African-Caribbean community, and Black Scottish

According to National Statistics, as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the United Kingdom; 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".[89] Britain encouraged the immigration of workers from the Caribbean after World War II; the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the Empire Windrush. The preferred official umbrella term is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the Southall Black Sisters, which started with a mainly British Asian constituency.
France
Main article: Afro-French

France is an ethnically diverse nation with about 2.5 – 5 million black people.[90][91]
Italy
Main article: Italians of African descent

Italy is an ethnically diverse nation with about 755,000 - 1.600.000 million black people. The largest group from North Africa, the percentage of Sub-Saharan Africans, and Caribbean.
Spain

See:

* Moors
* Spanish Inquisition
* Spanish Empire
* Immigration to Spain

Balkans

Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community – descendent of the Ottoman slave trade that had flourished here.[92] The Ottoman Army counted thousands of Black African soldiers in its ranks. The army sent to Balkans during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18 included 24,000 men from Africa.[93]

For many centuries throughout the Age of Discovery and the colonial empires, black people came from the colonies to the "mother country", either voluntarily (sometimes for education) or under duress (sometimes as slaves). Even prior to that, the Arab slave trade brought large numbers of Black Africans to the furthest reaches of Europe. Most of the black people living in Europe, however, have their origins in relatively recent waves of immigration. Since the decolonisation of the mid-twentieth century, substantial black populations have moved to certain countries in Europe; other European countries have very few black people. At present, black people have limited visibility in mainstream European society, except in a handful of roles such as sporting activities.
Eastern Europe

As African states became independent in the 1960s, the Soviet Union offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there.[94][95] This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the Eastern bloc.
Russia

See also: Negroid and mulatto people of Russia translated from Russian to English Wikipedia.

A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
59. ^ a b "Is Obama Black Enough?". Time. 2007-02-01. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1584736,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white — it's that he's too black."
60. ^ Edler, Melissa (Spring 2007). "Acting White". Kent State Magazine. http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
61. ^ Ogbu, J. "Black American students in an affluent suburb: a study of academic disengagement" Erlbaum Associates Press. Mahwah, NJ. 2003.
62. ^ Hansen, Suzy (2002-02-20). "Blacks and Bill Clinton". Salon. http://dir.salon.com/story/books/int/2002/02/20/clinton/index.html. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
63. ^ No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47
64. ^ Find Articles 404 File not found
65. ^ Carroll, Rory (2004-03-31). "US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/mar/31/usa.rwanda. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
66. ^ Roberts, Larry (1999-06-02). "Clinton's welfare reform has increased child poverty". World Socialist Web Site. http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jun1999/welf-j02.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
67. ^ Gray, Kevin A. (2002-12-07). "Soul Brother? Clinton and Black Americans". Counterpunch. http://www.counterpunch.org/gray1207.html. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
68. ^ a b Skidmore, Thomas E. (April 1992). "Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil" (PDF). Working Paper 173. http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf.
69. ^ a b Edward E., Telles (2004). Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil. Princeton University Press. pp. 95–98. ISBN 0691118663.
70. ^ Telles, Edward E. (3 May 2002). "Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population" (PDF). Ethnic and Racial Studies (California Center for Population Research) 25: 415–441. doi:10.1080/01419870252932133. http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf.
71. ^ "CIA World Factbook: Brazil". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html. [dead link]
72. ^ Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians
73. ^ Barrolle, Melvin Kadiri. "African 'Americans' in Brazil". New America Media. http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
74. ^ Roland, Edna Maria Santos. "The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil". http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc.
75. ^ Charles Whitaker, "Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality," Ebony, February 1991
76. ^ Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white
77. ^ The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV
78. ^ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations
79. ^ Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White, Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2006
80. ^ Roland Oliver, Africa in the Iron Age: c.500 BC-1400 AD, (Cambridge University Press: 1975)
81. ^ The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (p. 192), Jonathan Spence
82. ^ Coxinga and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty, by Jonathan Clements (Sutton, 2005), pp. 79-80[citation needed]
83. ^ China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration. By Malia Politzer. Migration Information Source. August 2008
84. ^ Guangzhou "Chocolate City": Africans Seek Their Dreams in China. 18-Dec-2008.
85. ^ Dongria Kondha Survival International
86. ^ Naturally blonde blacks
87. ^ Chapter 6: The Negrito Race
88. ^ Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Singh, L; Reddy, AG; Rao, VR; Sehgal, SC; Underhill, PA; Pierson, M; Frame, IG et al. (2003-01-21). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population" (PDF). Current Biology 13 (2): 86–93. doi:10.1080/00438240600564987. OCLC 112009350. PMID 12546781. http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
89. ^ National Statistics Online
90. ^ Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply. The Washington Post. April 24, 2005.
91. ^ In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream - and now a lobby. Csmonitor.com. January 12, 2007.
92. ^ Yugoslavia - Montenegro and Kosovo - The Next Conflict?
93. ^ African Slave Trade in Russia, By Dieudonne Gnammankou in La Channe et le lien, Doudou Diene, (id.) Paris, Editions UNESCO, 1988
94. ^ MediaRights: Film: Black Russians
95. ^ Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English
96. ^ The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism By Caroline Humphrey Cornell University 2002 p36–37
97. ^ Lisa Taylor, Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts, International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), 13 September 1999.
98. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28–117
99. ^ "The Descendants of Noah". http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM.
100. ^ Redford, Donald B. (1993). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. pp. 23–87. ISBN 0691000867.
101. ^ a b Goldenberg, David M. (New Ed edition (July 18, 2005)). The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691123705.
102. ^ a b Felicia R. Lee, Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale, Racematters.org, November 1, 2003
103. ^ Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian, Princeton University Press
104. ^ a b Building bridges to Afrocentrism
105. ^ "Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery". http://www.freemaninstitute.com/RTGhistory.htm.
106. ^ Snowden, Jr., Frank M. (1996). Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.). ed. Black Athena Revisited. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 113–14. "....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the terms Afri (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negores or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective subfusucli ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians...."
107. ^ Keita, Boyce, Shomarka, A.J. (1996). Theodore Celenko(ed). ed. Egypt in Africa. Chapel Hill: Indianapolis Museum of Art. pp. 25–27. "....The descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms....."
108. ^ "The Identity Of Ancient" (PDF). http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/mcnair/cynthia_research.pdf.
109. ^ Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white
110. ^ Basil Davidson. The Nile. http://www.lincoln.edu/history/his307/davidson/1/dif3.wmv.
111. ^ Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129–154 (1993)
112. ^ Keita, S.O.Y. (March 1992). "Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87 (3): 245–254. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330870302. PMID 1562056. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110482899/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0. Retrieved 2007-09-23. "The predominant craniometric pattern in the Abydos [First Dynasty] royal tombs is "southern" (tropical African variant)... However, lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity... The centroid values of the various upper Egyptian series viewed collectively are seen to vary over time. The general trend from Badari to Nakada times, and then from the Nakadan to the First Dynasty epochs demonstrate change toward the northern-Egyptian centroid value on Function I with similar values on Function 11. This might represent an average change from an Africoid (Keita, 1990) to a northern-Egyptian-Maghreb modal pattern.... This northern modal pattern, which can be called coastal northern African, is noted in general terms to be intermediate, by the centroid scores of Function I, to equatorial African and northern European phenotypes.". [dead link]

[hide]
v • d • e
Historical definitions of race
Color terminology for race
Black people · White people · Brown people · Red people · Yellow people
Typological definitions of race
Capoid race · Caucasian race · Mongoloid race · Negroid race · Australoid race
Typological sub-types
Alpine race · Arabid race · Armenoid race · Caspian race · Pontid race · Dinaric race · East Baltic race · Iranid race · Mediterranean race · Northcaucasian race · Balkans-Caucasian race · Nordic race · Turanid race · Ethiopid race · Sudanid race · Eskimid race · Pamirid race · Sinid race · Indid race · Veddoid race · Silvid race · Tungid race
Other concepts
Race (classification of human beings) · Scientific racism · Africoid peoples · Craniofacial anthropometry · Historical definitions of races in India · Martial Race · Aryan race · Malayan race · Nazism and race · Race and intelligence
Writers
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach · Arthur de Gobineau · Carleton S. Coon · William Z. Ripley · Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt · Felix von Luschan · Bertil Lundman · Joseph Deniker · Madison Grant · Ilse Schwidetzky · Georges Vacher de Lapouge · Giuseppe Sergi · Hans F. K. Günther · Houston Stewart Chamberlain · Lothrop Stoddard
Writings
The Races of Europe (Coon) · The Races of Europe (Ripley) · The Passing of the Great Race · The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century · The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy · An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people"
Categories: Black African people | Latin American caste system | Race

A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27. A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27. A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27. A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27. A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in Russia. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic Russians are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (chernye), and face specific sorts of social exclusion (see Racism in Russia). Roma, Georgians, and Tatars fall into this category.[96] Those referred to as "black" are from the former Soviet republics, predominantly peoples of the Caucasus, e.g. Chechens.[97] Although "Caucasian" is used in American English to mean "white people", in Russian – and most other varieties of English – it only refers to the Caucasus, not European people in general.
Debates on race
Hamitic race
Further information: Hamitic

According to some historians, the tale in Genesis 9 in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.[98] According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the Deluge and giving rise to three separate races.[99]

The biblical passage, Book of Genesis 9:20–27, which deals with the sons of Noah, however, makes no reference to race. The reputed curse of Ham is not on Ham, but on Canaan, one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.[100][101] The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define black people, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.[101]

Historians believe that by the nineteenth century, the belief that black people were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.[102] According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.[102]

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such racist interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like Philo and Origen of Alexandria, who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.[103]
In Afrocentrism
Main articles: Afrocentrism and Ancient Egyptian race controversy
1820 drawing of a Book of Gates fresco of the tomb of Seti I, depicting (from left): Libyan, Nubian, Asiatic, Egyptians.

A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the ancient Egyptians was sparked as part of the Afrocentric debate.[104] Afrocentrist scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop contend that ancient Egypt was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is Herodotus, who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."[105] However, Classical scholar Frank Snowden, Jr. cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.[106]

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.[107]

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many people, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.[108] According to Egyptologists, ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.[104][109] Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an Africoid element was evident in ancient Egypt,[110] which was predominant in Abydos in the First dynasty of Egypt.[111][112]
See also

* African-American
* African diaspora
* Africans
* Afro-Asian
* Afro-Latino



* Black British
* Black Canadians
* Black Hispanic and Latino Americans
* Black Indians
* Black pride, Black Power, Black nationalism, Black separatism, Black supremacy



* List of topics related to Black and African people
* Negritos
* Stereotypes of black people
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* The Minds of Marginalized Black Men (book)

Footnotes

1. ^ Human skin color diversity is highest or sub-Saharan African populations. NIH.gov
2. ^ Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the Austronesians and Papuans, the Andamanese islanders, the Semang people of the Malay peninsula, the Aeta people of Luzon, and some other small populations of indigenous peoples.
3. ^ black. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved April 13, 2007, from Dictionary.com website
4. ^ Rogers, Alan R.; Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen (February 2004). "Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair". Current Anthropology (The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research) 45 (1): 105–8. doi:10.1086/381006. OCLC 193553649. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
5. ^ Nouri, Keyvan (2007). Skin Cancer. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 32. ISBN 0-071-47256-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=TlhFQYziim8C&pg=PA32.
6. ^ Edlin, Gordon; Golanty, Eric (312). Health and Wellness. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-763-76593-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ki_fbxDZsHcC&pg=PA312.
7. ^ "Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer". http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp.
8. ^ "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin". Washington Post.
9. ^ Franbourg et al. "Influence of Ethnic Origin of Hair on Water-Keratin Interaction" In Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). page 101. Informa Healthcare. 2007
10. ^ a b Nick Arrojo, Jenny Acheson, Great Hair: Secrets to Looking Fabulous and Feeling Beautiful Every Day, (St. Martin's Press: 2008), p.184
11. ^ a b Dale H. Johnson, Hair and hair care, (CRC Press: 1997), p.237
12. ^ Ethnic Skin and Hair E. Berardesca, J. Leveque, and H. Maibach (Eds.). Informa Healthcare. 2007
13. ^ Iyengar, B. "The hair follicle is a specialized UV receptor in human skin?" Bio Signals Recep, 7(3), pages 188–194. 1998[not in citation given]
14. ^ Keita, Lansana (2004). "Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga". CODESRIA Bulletin (Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa) 1 & 2: 16.
15. ^ a b c Shahadah, Owen 'Alik. "Linguistics for a new African reality". http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm.
16. ^ Keith B., Richburg (Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)). Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa. Harvest/HBJ Book. ISBN 0156005832.
17. ^ Nullis, Clare (2007). "Township tourism booming in South Africa". The Associated Press. http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896.
18. ^ du Preez, Max (2006-04-13). "Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens". The Star. http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857.
19. ^ We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese, The Times
20. ^ Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance
21. ^ Remembering East African slave raids
22. ^ The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over
23. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History
24. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
25. ^ ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī (Moroccan military organization). Encyclopædia Britannica.
26. ^ The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian? Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)
27. ^ Lewis 1994, Ch.1
28. ^ Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations
29. ^ Musselman, Anson. "The Subtle Racism of Latin America". UCLA International Institute. http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125.
30. ^ Louis Gosset Jr. Hollywood.com
31. ^ Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone pages 5–7,31 ISBN 0714634875
32. ^ African Union Summit
33. ^ See Tahfeem ul Qur'an by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, Vol. 2 pp. 112–113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses [Qur'an 23:1]: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications
34. ^ Tafsir ibn Kathir 4:24
35. ^ ""Slavery in Arabia"". "Owen 'Alik Shahadah". http://www.arabslavetrade.com.
36. ^ Hunwick, John. "Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery" (PDF). http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf.
37. ^ Labbé, Theola; Omar Fekeiki (2004-01-11). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
38. ^ Ayvalık’ın renkli derneği, retrieved 28 August 2008
39. ^ Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt, Today's Zaman, 11 May 2008, Sunday, retrieved 28 August 2008
40. ^ The Ethiopian Population In Israel. Reuters. July 16, 2009.
41. ^ Israel Struggles With African Refugee Dilemma. ABC News. August 12, 2009.
42. ^ "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 , Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative, February 4, 2006
43. ^ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64
44. ^ Martin Luther King, Jr.. (August 28, 1963). I Have a Dream. [Google Video]. Washington, D.C.. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1732754907698549493. [dead link]
45. ^ Smith, Tom W. (Winter, 1992). "Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"" (PDF). The Public Opinion Quarterly (Oxford University Press) 56 (4): 496–514. doi:10.1086/269339. OCLC 192150485. http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf.
46. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2004-09-08). "Why I'm Black, Not African American". Los Angeles Times. http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
47. ^ Miller, Pepper; Kemp, Herb (2006). What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market. Paramount Market Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0972529098. OCLC 61694280.
48. ^ Swarns, Rachel L. (2004-08-29). "'African American' Becomes a Term for Debate". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
49. ^ 2000 US Census basics
50. ^ How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer
51. ^ a b James, F. Davis. "Who is Black? One Nation's Definition". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.
52. ^ Clarence Page, A Credit to His Races, The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 1, 1997.
53. ^ Sweet, Frank (Backintyme Essays). "Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule". The One-Drop Rule. 2006-04-01. http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
54. ^ a b Kroft, Steve (2007-02-11). "A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
55. ^ "Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'". BBS News. 2007-04-13. http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
56. ^ White, John Kennet. "Barack Obama and the Politics of Race". Catholic University of America. http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm.
57. ^ a b "Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript)" (pdf). BBC News. 2008-03-18. pp. p2. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-27. "This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well." See also: video
58. ^ Adesioye, Lola (2008-06-27). "Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win". Comment is Free. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree. Retrieved 2008-06-27.

przytkalo mnie,
nie bede Cie prosila o francuski, wiem ze nigdy tego nie zrobisz
hahahaha!!!!!!!

29/01/2006 20:44
Mémoire et espoirs des Noirs en France

Jacques Chirac a retenu la date du 10 mai pour la journée annuelle de la mémoire de l'esclavage. A cette occasion, «La Croix» publie un dossier spécial de huit pages consacrées aux Noirs en France



Vue partielle de l'assistance prise le 26 novembre 2005 à Paris dans une salle de l'Assemblée nationale, lors de la création de la Fédération des associations noires de France (photo Laban-Mattei/AFP)


L’année 2005 aura-t-elle marqué l’émergence d’une « question noire » en France ? Les polémiques successives sur le choix de la date pour honorer la mémoire des victimes de l’esclavage, et sur la reconnaissance dans les programmes scolaires du « rôle positif » de la présence française outre-mer, puis la création, il y a seulement deux mois, d’un Conseil représentatif des associations noires auront, en tout état de cause, brutalement mis en lumière un phénomène jusqu’alors souterrain : la montée de revendications politiques, sociales et mémorielles, autour d’un élément considéré comme fédérateur, celui de la couleur de la peau.

Et pourtant, quoi de commun entre un Français d’outre-mer et un immigré venant d’Afrique subsaharienne ? Quoi de commun encore entre un musulman sénégalais et un évangélique ghanéen ? «La Croix» tente aujourd’hui de comprendre pourquoi et comment cet «agrégat» identitaire s’est formé (p. I et II). Assiste-t-on, dans l’Hexagone, à la constitution d’un communautarisme sans véritable équivalent chez nos voisins européens ? et si oui, faut-il s’en inquiéter (p. VII et VIII) ? L’écrivain Maryse Condé, présidente du Comité pour la mémoire de l’esclavage (p. VI), qui doit être reçue aujourd’hui par Jacques Chirac avant l’annonce de la date finalement retenue pour rendre hommage aux victimes de l’esclavage, parle d’une quête de «reconnaissance historique».

Florence COURET

***

Etre noir en France

Assemblée nationale, 26 novembre 2005. Ils sont tous là pour lancer le Conseil représentatif des associations noires (Cran) : l’ancien porte-parole des Verts, Stéphane Pocrain, le chanteur Manu Dibango, l’ancien président de SOS Racisme, Fodé Sylla, le footballeur Basile Boli. Leur point commun : la couleur de la peau, noire. Leur objectif : jouer le rôle d’un «lobby» à l’américaine pour défendre les intérêts des Noirs de France. « Le Cran est né d’une prise de conscience que la couleur de la peau fédère», explique Patrick Lozès, président du Cran qui revendique plus de cent associations affiliées. «Les Noirs souffrent, poursuit ce pharmacien d’origine béninoise. Combien de jeunes Noirs diplômés sont réduits à occuper des postes de vigiles ? La France a toujours appréhendé les discriminations sociales mais jamais les discriminations ethno-raciales.»

La création d’une fédération d’associations «noires» est une première en France. Vingt ans après la Marche des beurs contre le racisme et pour l’égalité des droits, elle est révélatrice d’une montée des revendications identitaires chez les Noirs vivant dans l’Hexagone. Qu’il s’agisse des Antillais, qui sont Français depuis plusieurs siècles, ou des enfants d’immigrés africains, naturalisés ou nés en France, «l’expérience commune de l’humiliation et du rejet en raison de la seule couleur de la peau a créé un sentiment d’appartenance commun, mélange de défiance et de revendication», analyse ainsi le haut fonctionnaire Richard Senghor (1), petit neveu de Léopold Sédar Senghor, président-poète du Sénégal, mort en 2001.

Discriminés dans l’emploi et le logement (lire p. II), sous-représentés dans les médias ou les partis politiques (lire p. II), les Noirs ont été également oubliés des débats sur l’intégration, longtemps dominés par la seule question de l’immigration maghrébine. «Leurs problèmes ont été mis de côté alors que ce sont eux qui vivent dans les logements les plus insalubres, eux qui occupent les emplois les plus pénibles, reconnaît le secrétaire national du PS, Malek Boutih. Les Noirs sont invisibles, alors qu’ils subissent une marginalisation et un racisme très intenses dans la société française.»
Une loi perçue comme une offense supplémentaire

Cette lutte contre l’injustice sociale se double d’une lutte pour une reconnaissance symbolique. «Chaque Noir de France a une histoire familiale qui inclut des méfaits et des souffrances qu’il voudrait voir reconnaître, analyse l’historien à l’Ehess, Pap N’Diaye, membre fondateur du Cran. Mais il se heurte à l’indifférence des pouvoirs publics. L’article 4 de la loi du 23 février 2005 qui reconnaît le rôle positif de la colonisation outre-mer a été perçu comme une offense supplémentaire.» Pour le sociologue au CNRS, spécialiste des sociétés de la Caraïbe, Michel Giraud (2), «la lutte contre les discriminations a redonné vie à des revendications liées au passé, à la colonisation et à l’esclavage». «Les discriminations, poursuit le sociologue, sont elles-mêmes motivées par des stéréotypes – l’idée que le Noir est un être inférieur – qui se sont forgés aux temps de l’esclavage et de la colonisation.»

Surfant sur les frustrations, l’humoriste Dieudonné, né d’un père camerounais et d’une mère bretonne, a joué, au rythme de déclarations sulfureuses, un rôle de catalyseur. L’artiste, entré en politique dès 1997, cherche à fédérer des populations disparates autour d’un discours identitaire visant à dénoncer le passé esclavagiste de la France, et les injustices dont les Noirs seraient encore victimes aujourd’hui. Plusieurs fois traîné devant les tribunaux, l’humoriste œuvre, au passage, à mettre en concurrence la mémoire des traites négrières avec celle de la Shoah. «Dieudonné a contribué à mettre sur le devant de la scène un problème dont on ne parlait pas assez en France, reconnaît Michel Giraud. Mais il l’a mal posé, en ouvrant la voie à une véritable concurrence victimaire.»

Quoi qu’il en soit, les Antillais et les Africains n’ont pas attendu l’humoriste – dont beaucoup se désolidarisent – pour s’interroger sur leur passé. «La grogne des Antillais de métropole existe depuis longtemps, observe Marie-Georges Peria, vice-présidente du Centre d’études et de recherches des Français d’outre-mer (Cerfom). Beaucoup ont été déçus en arrivant dans l’Hexagone. Mais leurs frustrations, leur quête identitaire, étaient difficiles à formuler. Avec le 150e anniversaire de l’abolition de l’esclavage, en 1998, les originaires d’outre-mer ont trouvé un point focal pour commencer à exprimer ce qu’ils ressentaient. Depuis, les revendications s’amplifient de tous les côtés.»

La célébration de ce 150e anniversaire marque de fait un tournant. La marche silencieuse organisée, à cette occasion, à Paris, le 23 mai 1998, est un succès : 40 000 personnes marchent entre Vincennes et Nation, sous le slogan «esclavage, crime contre l’humanité». «Il s’agit alors d’insister sur la responsabilité directe de la France dans cette histoire, trop longtemps occultée, commente le président du Comité marche du 23 mai, Serge Romana, généticien à l’hôpital Necker à Paris. Nous ne voulions pas que la France commémore l’abolition de l’esclavage en 1848, mais la mémoire de nos aînés, enfin reconnus comme victimes, au même titre que les juifs ou les arméniens. Car nous sommes filles et fils d’esclaves !»
Antillais et Africains reconnaissent que la couleur de la peau fédère

Cette première marche défile dans une indifférence quasi générale. Mais le mouvement est lancé et se poursuit avec le dépôt d’une proposition de loi visant à la reconnaissance de la traite et de l’esclavage comme crime contre l’humanité, portée par la députée de Guyane, apparentée socialiste, Christiane Taubira. Le Sénat adopte la loi le 10 mai 2001. Une première en Europe. Un Comité pour la mémoire de l’esclavage est créé dans la foulée. Présidé par l’écrivain guadeloupéenne Maryse Condé, il est notamment chargé de proposer une date nationale de commémoration de l’esclavage.

Parallèlement, les Noirs de France s’organisent. Avant 1998, une nébuleuse de structures coexistent ; les multiples associations culturelles antillaises d’un côté, les associations de travailleurs africains, de l’autre. Mais en décembre 1999, la romancière Calixthe Beyala et le metteur en scène Luc Saint-Eloi créent le collectif Égalité, qui fédère 200 associations afro-antillaises. Le mouvement dénonce la non-représentation de la diversité ethnique sur les écrans et réclame des quotas. Il s’agit de la première association à ouvrir en France le débat sur les « minorités visibles » et la discrimination positive. Antillais et Africains reconnaissent que la couleur de la peau fédère et forge une identité commune, au-delà des divergences.

C’est l’année 2005 qui voit véritablement se poser une «question noire» en France, avec une succession d’événements. En mars, des intellectuels, dont Alain Finkielkraut, lancent un appel contre le «racisme anti-blanc», après des manifestations lycéennes au cours desquelles de jeunes Noirs auraient agressé des manifestants, Blancs. En août, l’incendie de deux immeubles insalubres fait 24 victimes à Paris, toutes africaines. Lors des violences urbaines de novembre, la police constate que de jeunes noirs se trouvent souvent en première ligne des affrontements. En décembre, des Antillais s’opposent à la célébration du bicentenaire de la bataille d’Austerlitz, parce que remportée «par un négrier nommé Napoléon Bonaparte». Enfin, Nicolas Sarkozy annule un déplacement aux Antilles devant le tollé que suscite le refus des députés UMP d’abroger le fameux article 4 de la loi du 23 février 2005 sur l’enseignement du «rôle positif de la présence française outre-mer».
L’année 2005 aura été celle de la cristalisation d’une identité noire revendiquée

«Le lien entre tous ces événements, c’est la question ethno-raciale, résume l’historien Pap N’Diaye. Les Noirs deviennent visibles dans l’espace public.» «L’année 2005 aura été celle de la cristalisation d’une identité noire revendiquée, d’une colère noire exprimée, ajoute Richard Senghor. Comme si, lasse de subir cette image d’éternelle victime, était soudain née une “communauté noire” déterminée à remettre les pendules à l’heure, à commencer par celles de l’Histoire. Même si ce retour en force du biologique a de quoi interpeller.» Et c’est d’ailleurs bien le cas. Pour le président de SOS Racisme, Dominique Sopo, «la question noire n’existe pas». Selon lui, les Noirs de France ne se reconnaissent pas dans cette fabrication identitaire mise au service de revendications communautaires.

De fait, quoi de commun entre un citoyen originaire d’un département d’outre-mer installé en métropole, un immigré originaire d’Afrique subsaharienne ou un réfugié politique arrivant d’Afrique centrale ? «Rien, tranche Patrick Karam, président du collectif des Antillais, Guyanais et Réunionnais, qui revendique 10 000 membres. Ce n’est pas parce que l’on est noir que l’on a le même passé, les mêmes attentes. Les Antillais, par exemple, sont davantage préoccupés par le problème de la continuité territoriale que par celui des discriminations.»

D’autres reprochent à ce mouvement identitaire de se tromper de combat. «Jusqu’à quand les Noirs seront descendants d’esclaves ou de colonisés ? Quelle énergie perdue dans la déploration victimaire !», s’agace l’auteur de Je suis noir et je n’aime pas le manioc (3), Gaston Kelman, qui admet pourtant qu’il existe «un problème racial» en France. Pour le sociologue Michel Giraud, «se servir du passé pour solder les comptes du présent n’est pas une bonne stratégie». Et s’il est «essentiel de lutter contre les discriminations raciales», «la solution ne devrait pas passer par la revendication d’une identité noire», laquelle «contribue à la fragmentation de la société». Pour Michel Giraud, « chacun doit faire en sorte que la réappropriation du passé dont il porte encore les marques ne devienne pas une fixation passéiste qui clotûrerait l’avenir».

Solenne de ROYER

(1) Richard Senghor : Le Surgissement d’une question noire en France, Esprit, janvier 2006.
(2) Michel Giraud a contribué à l’ouvrage collectif dirigé par Partick Weil et Stéphane Dufoix : L’Esclavage, la colonisation, et après…, PUF, 2005, 627 p., 29 €.
(3) Max Milo Éditions, 2004, 16 €.

Szczebiotka-
Napisz coś od siebie a nie kopiujesz gotowe teksty.

br1

Uffff ,umeczylem sie ale juz wszystko wiem jak z tym kotkiem i pieskiem bylo ,pouczajace heheh

Odgryzła się jak bąk na kobylej dupie..

a wcale ze tak
a co ja z nimi bede robila, nudyyyy!!!